Nazi Party: Rise to Power, Hitler and the Fall of German Democracy
The Nazi Party came to power in Germany on January 30, 1933. On that day, German President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor. At the time, Germany was governed under a democratic republic known as the Weimar Republic.
The Weimar Republic had been established almost 15 years earlier, at the end of World War I (1914–1918). It replaced the German Empire (1871–1918), which had collapsed in November 1918 following its defeat in the war. The Weimar Republic was a parliamentary democracy, and its constitution guaranteed the equality of all citizens before the law. It also recognized civil liberties such as freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom of religion. Many Germans accepted the end of the German Empire and the establishment of a new republic. However, others considered the system illegitimate and rejected it.
Hitler and the Nazis hated the Weimar Republic. They considered parliamentary democracy a weak system and despised the leaders of the Weimar Republic for signing the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. The Nazis also had an anti-Semitic ideology, meaning they hated Jews and embraced anti-Semitic conspiracy theories about the end of World War I, the formation of the Weimar Republic, and the spread of communism. They falsely blamed Jews for many of Germany’s post-war problems. Their goal was to create a strong, authoritarian Germany free of Jews.
In the early 1920s, the Nazi Party was a small, unpopular, and ineffective political movement. But by the mid-1930s, this had changed. By then, the Great Depression had plunged Germany into deep economic and political crisis. The Nazis gained popularity by attacking the Weimar government as dysfunctional and promising to build a Germany of their own. Over the next two and a half years, they ruthlessly exploited the democratic institutions of the Weimar Republic to seize power. This process depended on three main factors:
- The real support of a significant part of German society for Hitler and the Nazi Party since late 1929;
- The manipulation of the German democratic system by a number of political leaders; and
- Behind-the-scenes clashes between German President Paul von Hindenburg and a small group of right-wing, anti-democratic politicians in 1932 and early 1933.
1918-1924: The Nazi Party on the Anti-Democratic Political Margin
The Weimar Republic was an unstable democracy for its first five years. After World War I, the newly formed state faced domestic and international crises. Like many European countries, Germany was struggling with famine, disease, rising crime, and political extremism. Communist movements inspired by the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia had attracted a segment of the German population and terrified many. It was in this post-World War I atmosphere that the Nazi Party was founded in January 1919. At the time, it was officially known as the German Workers’ Party ( Deutsche Arbeiterpartei , DAP).
Goals and ideology of the Nazi Party
In the early 1920s, the Nazi Party was a small, extreme, right-wing, anti-Semitic movement. Adolf Hitler quickly became the party’s undisputed leader. As stated in Hitler’s early speeches and the party manifesto (1920), the Nazis were anti-Semitic, ultra-nationalist, anti-democratic, and strongly opposed to communism.
Hitler and the Nazi Party aimed to overthrow the Weimar Republic and establish an authoritarian government. They intended to take over Germany by force. By the end of 1921, the party had created a paramilitary unit called the SA ( Sturmabteilung ), which supported the party and participated in its battles. The Nazi Party’s extremist slogans and goals led to a number of German states banning the party in 1922, claiming it posed a threat to the republic.
Beer store coup
On November 8-9, 1923, Hitler and other Nazi leaders attempted to seize power in the German state of Bavaria. Their goal was to march on Berlin to overthrow the German government. At the time, the Nazi Party had about 55,000 members.
This failed coup, known as the “Beer Hall Putsch”, quickly failed. Hitler was arrested, tried, and convicted of treason. The trial brought Hitler’s name to the fore, especially in right-wing and nationalist circles. Following the coup, Bavarian authorities banned and dissolved the Nazi Party, the SA, and Nazi-affiliated newspapers.
1925-1929: The Nazis try the “legal” route
During the months that Hitler was in prison, the political and economic situation in the Weimar Republic stabilized. The German economy strengthened, the political structure became more efficient, and art and culture flourished. This period (1924–1929) is often called the Weimar Golden Age.
After his release from prison in December 1924, Hitler faced new political and economic circumstances. He realized that the Nazis would not be able to seize power by force. Therefore, he was determined to change the political strategy of the Nazi Party and decided that the Nazis would enter electoral competitions and gain public support. Hitler called this approach the “legal path”.
We go to parliament to arm ourselves with weapons from the arsenal of democracy. We become members of parliament to paralyze the Weimar intellectual system from within…. If democracy is so naive as to give us free tickets and allowances for this mission, that is its own business. We are not worried about that. We will use every legal means to change the status quo.
—Joseph Goebbels, Nazi leader in Berlin
This decision was controversial among anti-democratic Nazi forces. However, the Nazi Party had only changed its political strategy, not its ideology. Hitler and the Nazis continued to question the legitimacy of the Weimar Republic, condemn the party’s policies, and call for an authoritarian government.
Creating the Party’s Popular Infrastructure
In early 1925, the Bavarian government lifted the ban on the Nazi Party. Hitler attempted to revive the movement and reunify it under his leadership. The Nazi leaders attempted to rebuild the party’s membership, which had been decimated by the Beer Hall Putsch. They also established new paramilitary organizations, establishing the SS ( Schutzstaffel , Protection Squadron) in 1925 and the Hitler Youth in 1926 .
In 1928, Nazi leaders created a centralized political organization that would extend the Nazis’ influence throughout Germany. The new party structure was aligned with Germany’s electoral districts to facilitate electoral campaigns. This cohesive grassroots organization ultimately helped Hitler come to power in 1933.
The 33rd Nazi propaganda slide related to the training of the Hitler Youth, entitled “Germany Overcomes Judaism.” The text in German reads: “Zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes vor fremdrassiger Vermischung erliess der Fuhrer die Nürnberger Gesetze.” Translation: “To protect German blood from mixing with foreign races, the Führer issued the Nuremberg Laws.”
Poor election results for the Nazis, 1926-1928
Despite these efforts, the Nazi Party remained small and marginal in the mid- to late 1920s. Their extreme anti-Semitic and anti-democratic messages were unappealing to many voters during a period of relative prosperity and stability. In the state elections of 1926 and 1927, the Nazi Party won between 1.6 and 2.5 percent of the vote. On May 20, 1928, they also ran in the Reichstag (national parliament) elections. They won only 2.6 percent of the vote. At that time, the party had about 100,000 members.
As a result of the May 1928 elections, Social Democratic politician Hermann Müller became Chancellor of Germany. He led a grand coalition government which included a number of political parties supporting the Weimar Republic.
Nazi efforts to win support from the middle classes, 1928-1929
Poor election results forced the Nazi Party to change its tactics. Previously, the Nazis had sought to win the support of working-class voters, but after the May 1928 elections, they increasingly focused their efforts on attracting rural and middle-class voters. They sought to appeal to small business owners, industrialists, employees, farmers, and agricultural workers. The Nazis achieved relatively rapid success, especially after the German economy began to struggle in early 1929.
Nazi Propaganda, Targeted Messaging, and Anti-Semitism
Hitler and other Nazi orators carefully tailored their speeches and programs to their audiences. This approach allowed them to directly target local and regional concerns, both economic and ideological. The Nazis presented an idealistic and nationalistic vision, an image they hoped would appeal to a wide range of voters and transcend class boundaries.
From 1928, Hitler and the Nazi Party attempted to tone down some of their most extreme anti-Semitic positions. For example, they no longer explicitly stated their intention to strip Jews of their German citizenship.
However, Germans were well aware that Hitler and the Nazis had a deep-rooted hatred of Jews. Nazi newspapers continued to attack Jews and promote anti-Semitic conspiracy theories. In many cities, people witnessed anti-Semitic chants and slogans chanted by Nazi groups. Slogans such as “Get the Jews out of Germany” and “Beat the Jews to death” There were also boycotts and vandalism of Jewish-owned businesses and public beatings and assaults of Jewish individuals.
1930: German Democracy in Crisis and the Rise of the Nazis
The golden age of the Weimar Republic ended in late 1929, with the Great Depression in Germany. Unemployment rose rapidly, and many Germans saw the government as incapable of managing the crisis. In this situation, the Nazi Party managed to gain more votes.
Political stalemate in Germany
The economic crisis quickly led to political deadlock. The ruling parties could not agree on how to deal with the worsening economic situation. In March 1930, Chancellor Müller and his entire government resigned after a disagreement over how to manage Germany’s financially strained unemployment insurance program.
After Müller (of the Social Democratic Party), German President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Heinrich Brüning, a politician from the Center Party, as Chancellor. The conservative Hindenburg wanted a right-wing government aligned with his own views. On his orders, Brüning’s government excluded the center-left Social Democrats. This meant that Chancellor Brüning did not have the support of a parliamentary majority.
Brüning led the first of a series of presidential cabinets ( Präsidialkabinette ), governments that lacked a parliamentary majority and relied mainly on the support of President Hindenburg.
Governance using emergency decrees
In July 1930, Hindenburg and Bruning issued an emergency decree to pass an anti-inflationary budget, despite parliamentary opposition. They invoked Article 48 of the German constitution, which allowed the president to act in times of national emergency without parliamentary approval. Parliament, exercising its constitutional right, voted to force Hindenburg to revoke the decree. In response, Hindenburg and Brüning dissolved parliament and called early elections.
Nazi success in the September 1930 elections
Special general elections were scheduled for September 14, 1930. Hitler and the Nazis launched an extensive election campaign, focusing their message on denouncing the Weimar Republic as a weak and ineffective government.
The leader of the Nazi Party in Berlin, Joseph Goebbels, coordinated nationwide propaganda, which included posters, marches, and rallies. In the month leading up to the election, the Nazis held tens of thousands of events across Germany. In major cities, Hitler addressed large gatherings of thousands of people. Some of these political events turned violent as the Nazis clashed with their political rivals, especially the Communists.
In September 1930, the Nazi Party won 18 percent of the vote, becoming the second largest party in parliament. Although the Nazis had been gaining ground for more than a year, the election results surprised many Germans and sent a wave of anxiety across Germany. Hitler suddenly became a major player in German politics. However, Chancellor Brüning refused to form a coalition government with the Nazi Party.
1931: Deepening crisis of democracy
In 1931, the economic, social, and political situation in Germany continued to deteriorate. Unemployment rose. Banks failed, and the German political system came under increasing pressure. In addition, the rise of the Communist Party worried many Germans.
Although Hitler publicly promised to act within the law, his ultimate goal was to destroy German democracy. While promising that only they could restore stability and order, the Nazis used various methods to foment disorder and instability in the country.
Adolf Hitler stands next to an SA unit at a Nazi parade in Weimar, the city where the constitution of the Weimar Republic was drafted in 1919. Weimar, Germany, 1931.
Nazi Party disruption and sabotage in parliament
Nazi representatives in parliament deliberately resorted to disruption and chaos. They refused to support any action by the Brüning government and regularly called for a vote of no confidence. They also disrupted parliamentary sessions by introducing irrelevant reminders and regulations.
Brüning tried to circumvent this situation. With the support of Hindenburg, he repeatedly invoked Article 48 of the Basic Law and issued emergency decrees. His economic policies had little effect on reducing unemployment or improving the situation of the poor. As a result, the Communists called him the ” Hungerkanzler ” (Hunger Chancellor ). Brüning also sent parliament into long periods of recess.
Undermining public order through political violence
By 1931, political violence on the streets of Germany had become uncontrollable. This was largely due to the proliferation of paramilitary groups affiliated with various parties across the political spectrum. The Nazi Party’s paramilitary group, known as the SA, was particularly extreme and violent. Members of the SA (Staatsguard) often harassed Jews and broke the windows of Jewish-owned shops. They regularly clashed with and even killed their political opponents, especially communists. In turn, a significant number of Nazis were also killed by opposing groups. The German government and police forces failed to control this violence, further undermining the trust of many Germans in the Weimar Republic.
Government efforts to prevent disruption
National and state governments attempted to stop the chaos caused by Nazi and Communist activities. In 1931, the Brüning government issued four emergency decrees to deal with political unrest. These decrees allowed authorities to restrict freedom of speech and assembly in the name of public safety and order. For example, they could ban the wearing of uniforms or political symbols; seize newspapers; and cancel certain gatherings.
However, none of these measures stopped the growth of the Nazi movement. By the end of 1931, the number of Nazi Party members had reached 806,294. The party also achieved impressive results in local and state elections that year.
1932: A year of consecutive elections and political intrigue
In 1932, five major elections were held in Germany. From late February to November, everyday life was dominated by political rallies, demonstrations, and marches. The Nazis tried to create the impression in their election campaigns that the future was theirs, and that victory was inevitable. To achieve this goal, they took advantage of new technologies such as radio and airplanes and introduced new methods of propaganda. They produced and distributed audiotapes of their campaign speeches and showed talking films. Hitler attracted media attention by flying around Germany. He would visit several cities in a single day, giving short speeches to crowds of tens of thousands.
Alongside these public activities, Hitler often negotiated behind the scenes with a small group of right-wing politicians to find a way into the government. These politicians included:
- President Hindenburg and his son Oskar;
- Hindenburg’s Chief of Staff, Otto Meissner;
- General Kurt von Schleicher;
- Alfred Hugenberg (right-wing leader of the German Nationalist People’s Party or DNVP); and
- Franz von Papen.
These individuals, like Hitler, opposed the Weimar Republic, loathed the Social Democrats, and feared communism. They hoped to exploit the popularity and social standing of the Nazi Party to further their own goals. To this end, they were willing to overlook aspects of Nazism and Hitler’s personality traits that they found objectionable. They colluded with Hitler and the Nazis to exploit the crisis in Germany, and together they undermined and ultimately destroyed German democracy.
The choices of this small circle explain how and why Hitler came to power at that point in history.
Hitler’s candidacy for president, March–April 1932
In 1932, Hindenburg’s first seven-year term as president ended. New presidential elections were scheduled for March 13. Hitler decided to challenge Hindenburg, who had reluctantly decided to run for re-election. Hindenburg enjoyed the support of a wide range of political parties.
Hitler, 42, presented himself as Germany’s only hope for the future and called the Nazi movement a youth party. In his speeches, he often referred to the 84-year-old Hindenburg as “the old man” and attacked the Social Democrats (who had supported Hindenburg) and the Weimar Republic. On March 13, Hindenburg won just under 50 percent of the vote, narrowly missing out on a decisive victory. Hitler had won 30 percent of the vote. In the second round of elections, held on April 10, Hindenburg won the presidency with 53 percent of the vote, while Hitler’s share increased to just under 37 percent.
Nazi success in Prussian state elections, April 1932
On April 24, state parliamentary elections were held in Prussia and several other German states. The Prussian elections were of particular importance as Prussia was the largest state in Germany with a population of around 38 million and around 60% of the German population lived in Prussia.
The Nazis continued their election campaign with remarkable speed, taking advantage of the momentum of the presidential campaign. The Nazi Party managed to capture 36 percent of the vote. Despite this impressive success, they were unable to seize power in Prussia or join the state government. Instead, a coalition of center-left parties temporarily remained in power, forming a provisional government without a majority in parliament.
Dismissal of Chancellor Brüning
In late May 1932, Hindenburg dismissed Chancellor Brüning. The decision was the result of Hindenburg’s dissatisfaction with the chancellor and political intrigue within his inner circle. In Brüning’s place, Hindenburg appointed Franz von Papen, a more right-wing and conservative politician who was more in line with the views of the president and his advisors.
The Nazis supported Papen’s appointment in exchange for two concessions: first, the lifting of the nationwide ban on the SA, which had been imposed by the Brüning government in April of that year; and second, the holding of early parliamentary elections. Papen and Hindenburg agreed to both demands. The ban on the SA was lifted, parliament was dissolved, and new elections were scheduled for July 31. Given their performance in the Prussian state elections, Nazi success in these elections seemed highly likely.
Historically, Hindenburg’s decision to dismiss Brüning and call early elections is considered a turning point in this period. It helped the Nazis rise to power. The early elections deepened political tensions and paved the way for the Nazis to become the most popular political party in Germany.
A blow to democracy: Chancellor Franz von Papen and the coup in Prussia
After the SA was banned, political violence increased on the streets of Germany. Papen used a bloody incident started by the SA in Altona, Prussia, as a pretext to seize control of the Prussian state government. Hindenburg and Papen claimed that the country was in a state of emergency and seized control of Prussia by invoking Article 48. Papen was appointed Reichskommissar for Prussia and dismissed left-wing and centrist politicians from their positions.
Papen’s authoritarian action in Prussia undermined the pluralism of the federal system of the Weimar Republic. And it paved the way for the gradual abolition of democracy and the establishment of a more authoritarian order in Germany, a process that would have decisive consequences six months later, with the appointment of Hitler as Chancellor.
National parliamentary elections of July 1932
Poster by Mühlner [Nazi graphic artist Hans Schweitzer], titled “Hitler: Our Last Hope,” 1932. In the 1932 presidential election, Nazi propagandists appealed to Germans who had been made unemployed and impoverished by the economic depression of the 1930s by presenting them with a savior.
Sources, credits:
- US Holocaust Memorial Museum
In the run-up to the July 1932 elections, the Nazis once again campaigned with enthusiasm, expanding on the themes of their previous campaigns. One of their slogans was “Germany, wake up! Give power to Adolf Hitler!” The Nazis denounced the Communist Party and the Weimar Republic government, and spread their message at rallies, on posters, and in newspapers and pamphlets. Despite their previous agreement with Papen, the Nazis fiercely attacked his cabinet.
In the elections of 31 July 1932, the Nazi Party won 37% of the vote, becoming the largest political party in Germany. Based on these results, Hitler demanded to be appointed Chancellor, but Hindenburg refused to accept it. The increasing violence of the SA after the election had alarmed Hindenburg and his advisors. Hitler, who saw this decision as humiliating, refused to accept any further responsibility.
A parliament dominated by the Nazis
Following the July elections, Chancellor Papen faced a hostile parliament. The Nazis and Communists together held more than half the seats. In September 1932, Papen, with Hindenburg’s approval, dissolved parliament to obtain a vote of no confidence. Another early election was scheduled for November.
Nazi Party vote decline in November 1932 elections
By the November 1932 elections, Germans were tired of the endless campaigning. Even among the Nazis, signs of fatigue and exhaustion were visible. But Hitler continued his campaign with determination. He called Papen a reactionary and condemned his pro-business economic policies. One propaganda poster described Hitler as “our last hope.”
In the elections of November 6, 1932, the Nazi Party was forced to retreat, winning 33 percent of the vote, 4 percentage points less than in July. Voter turnout fell, and the Nazi image of invincibility was shattered.
The election was seen by many Germans and international observers as a sign of the collapse of the Nazi Party. However, the results did not change the balance of power. The Nazi Party remained the largest party in parliament, and Hitler continued to refuse to compromise. He insisted on being appointed Chancellor on his own terms. The political stalemate continued, with none of the political parties able to agree on a coalition government.
Behind-the-scenes negotiations
In early December, President Hindenburg appointed General Kurt von Schleicher as Chancellor. Schleicher was his long-time ally. However, he quickly lost Hindenburg’s trust and was unable to find practical solutions to the crisis.
In December 1932 and January 1933, Papen tried to bring down the Schleicher government. He pressured Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as chancellor. At first, the president resisted. But Papen, by enlisting the support of Hindenburg’s inner circle and other conservative and anti-democratic politicians, finally changed his mind. By the end of January, this group had finally convinced Hindenburg. Hitler was appointed chancellor by Hindenburg on January 30. Hindenburg and his advisors, especially Papen, were confident that they could contain Hitler and limit his power.
1933: Hitler comes to power
Events moved quickly in 1933. In January, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany from a marginal figure, and in this position he immediately took action to fulfill his election promises and transform Germany from a democracy into a dictatorship.
Hitler’s first cabinet
Hitler led a right-wing coalition government consisting of the Nazi Party and the German Nationalist People’s Party (DNVP). Franz von Papen was Vice Chancellor. In addition to the chancellorship, Hitler initially wanted two cabinet positions to be reserved for Nazi politicians. Wilhelm Frick was appointed Minister of the Interior, responsible for security and police, and Hermann Göring was appointed Minister without a specific title. All other cabinet positions were held by non-Nazi politicians.
At Hitler’s request, Hindenburg dissolved parliament and new elections were called. This was the third parliamentary election in less than a year.
The first steps from democracy to dictatorship
On January 30, 1933, Adolf Hitler was Chancellor of Germany, but not yet a dictator. The constitution of the Weimar Democratic Republic was still in effect. However, Hitler and other Nazi leaders were determined to use every legal opportunity and loophole to undermine and ultimately destroy the democratic system.
In late February, the German parliament building was set on fire after arson. The Nazis used the fire as a pretext to expand their power. Hitler convinced Hindenburg to issue the Reichstag Fire Decree, invoking Article 48. The first article of the emergency decree suspended civil liberties and civil proceedings indefinitely. The second article allowed the central government to take control of state governments, as Papen had once done in Prussia. In the wake of this decree, the Nazis began to intimidate political opponents (including members of parliament); expand police powers; and establish concentration camps.
Last multi-party election, March 5, 1933
The parliamentary elections of March 1933 were held in an atmosphere of Nazi intimidation and terror against left-wing political opponents. Before the elections, the Nazis arrested many leaders of the Communist Party, including party chairman Ernst Thälmann. The government used the Reichstag Fire Decree to limit the ability of the Social Democrats and Communists to campaign and organize.
In these elections, the Nazi Party won about 44 percent of the vote. Their conservative coalition partners won 8 percent. Overall, Hitler’s government won the support of more than 50 percent of the seats in parliament. But, even amid repression and terror, the Social Democrats won 18 percent and the Communists 12 percent. The March 1933 elections were the last multi-party elections in Germany until after World War II.
Delegation of Powers Act, March 23, 1933
On March 23, the newly elected parliament passed the Enabling Act, which allowed Hitler to legislate without parliamentary approval. Under this law, Hitler could even enact laws that violated the constitution.
To ensure the passage of this law, Hitler and the Nazi Party threatened, harassed, and/or arrested many politicians. The Empowerment Act was only passed as a result of the government’s suppression and intimidation of other political parties, as well as manipulation of parliamentary rules and mechanisms.
Hitler used his new powers to fundamentally change the structure of the country. On April 7, the Nazi regime passed the Law for the “Reorganization of the Professional Civil Service.” This law allowed the government to dismiss civil servants for political reasons or because they were Jewish. This act marked the beginning of a wide wave of discriminatory and dictatorial laws.
In July 1933, the Nazi Party was declared the only legal party in Germany.
1934: Hitler becomes dictator
The Nazis’ process of complete centralization of power was completed in August 1934, when President Paul von Hindenburg died. A new constitution merged the offices of president and chancellor, giving Hitler the authority of both offices. From then on, Hitler became the absolute dictator of Germany, with no legal or constitutional limits on his powers.
